... today.''¹

James B. Coover, ``Materials of a Music Library,'' in Manual of Music Librarianship (Geneva, N.Y.: Music Library Association, 1966), 3.

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... sound.^1.1

An example of an exception would be an audio reserves project for which the instructor provides a spoken introduction or announcement for each audio example.

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... MB.^2.1

One megabyte is 1,048,576 rather than 1,000,000 bytes. For more information on the confusing math of bits and bytes, see MB, Mbps, and MHz in the glossary.

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... sound.^2.2

Bruce and Marty Fries, Digital Audio Essentials, (Sebastopol, Calif.: O'Reilly, 2005), 175.

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... kbps.^2.3

It is also possible to calculate the bitrate of uncompressed audio. The compact disc audio example covered in the preceding section has a bitrate of 1,411 kbps (44,100 samples per second $\times$ 2 channels $\times$ 16 bits per sample), or about eleven times the bitrate of typical 128 Kbps compressed audio.

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... other.^3.1

A good example is the QuickTime file format, which can contain data in a number of different formats--for example, MP3 data or AAC data.

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... Telegraph.^3.2

Ken C. Pohlmann, Principles of Digital Audio, 5th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005), 52-53.

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... PCM.^3.3

Fries & Fries, 159.

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... formats.^3.4

Pohlmann, 569. For details on the structure of the header of an .au file and the audio formats it can accommodate, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Au_file_format (Accessed 28 November 2005).

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... internet.^3.5

In order to stream CD-quality audio (two channels sampled at 44.1 kHz with 16 bytes per sample) a computer would need to receive a stream at 1.4 Mbps. Broadband networks will undoubtedly eventually achieve this speed, but in 2006 downloading a minute of CD-quality audio over a relatively fast 768 kbps DSL connection takes nearly two minutes (110 seconds).

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... compression.^3.6

General compression algorithms for computer data--such as PKZIP and the Unix command gzip--can be applied to audio data files, but they typically reduce an audio file's size by only 10 to 20 percent. Lossless audio compression formats use algorithms specific to audio data that produce higher compression rates, generally reducing the size of a file by between 30 and 50 percent.

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... channels.^3.7

Pohlmann, 472.

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... format.^3.8

See also ``Ogg Vorbis'' on p.  below.

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... available.^3.9

Most of this information is taken from the WavPack site: David Bryant, ``WavPack Audio Compression,'' http://www.wavpack.com (Accessed 14 December 2005).

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... winter.''^3.10

Response to the question ``Could you tell me about the future of Monkey's Audio?'' in the FAQ contained in version 3.99 of the Monkey's Audio software (Accessed 13 December 2005).

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... development.^3.11

See http://www.monkeysaudio.com.

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... metadata.^3.12

The numbering scheme for MPEG is not strictly sequential; there is no MPEG-3, -5, or –6.

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... quality^3.13

``Near CD'' quality is entirely subjective and can vary depending on the listener. For some, compressed audio encoded at 128 kbps might be nearly indistinguishable from a CD; for more sophisticated listeners, the rate needs to be pushed up to 196 kpbs.

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... files.^3.14

For information the Frauenhofer Institute's and Thomson's patent claims, see Gabriel Bouvigne, ``Patents and MP3,'' http://www.mp3-tech.org/patents.html (Accessed 10 December 2005). Thomson's licensing information is available at http://www.mp3licensing.com (Accessed 10 December 2005).

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... predecessors.^3.15

David Austerberry, The Technology of Video and Audio Streaming, 2nd ed. (Burlington, MA: Focal Press, 2005), 122. The MPEG-4 variety of AAC has been confusingly referred to as MP4, which reinforces the perception of AAC as the successor to MP3 while mixing apples with oranges: the ``3'' in ``MP3'' refers to Layer 3 in the MPEG family of standards, but there is no Layer 4 that would correspond to ``MP4''; in this case, the ``4'' refers to the MPEG-4 group of standards, which provides for much more than AAC.

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... store.^3.16

The AAC audio purchased on Apple's iTunes store is contained in files in Apple's proprietary .m4p format, which includes a digital rights management wrapper that controls use of the file.

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... files.^3.17

``MP4,'' http://www.audiocoding.com/modules/wiki/?page=mp4 (Accessed 3 February 2006)

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... holders.^3.18

Fries & Fries, 170.

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... Xiph.org.^3.19

Xiph.org was originally named Xiphophorus, which explains the choice of a fish as the official logo for Ogg Vorbis. http://www.streamingmediaworld.com/audio/tools/vorbis (Accessed 13 December 2005).

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... kbps),^4.1

The exact figure is .9155 MB. For a formula to calculate the size of a compressed audio file, see p.

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... Boston.^4.2

Strictly speaking, Napster was not a pure peer-to-peer network, since it relied on central servers to maintain lists of connected systems and the files they made available for sharing. This also opened it up to successful litigation. More recent peer-to-peer networks have abandoned this central-server model.

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... service.^4.3

The Napster brand and logo were acquired by Roxio in 2002 for use with a commercial service released in October 2003, but beyond the name, the commercial Napster bears no resemblance to the original file-sharing platform.

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... audio.^4.4

Jason Meserve, ``P2P Traffic Still Dominates the 'Net,'' Networkworld, 29 August 2005, 16.

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... infringements.^4.5

Case no. 04-0480, 545 U.S.____ (2005).

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... results.^4.6

The WAVE, FLAC, MP3, AAC, WMA, and Ogg files were created using Easy CD-DA Extractor, and the RealAudio file was created using RealProducer.

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... bitrates,^4.7

See, for example, ``Advanced Audio Coding'' and ''Ogg Vorbis'' on p.  and p.  above.

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... files.^5.1

For a description of the differences between analog and digital recordings, see ``Analog and Digital Sound'' on p.  above.

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... interface.^5.2

For more detailed information on the digitization of sound, see ``Fundamentals of Digital Audio'' on page above.

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... Windows.^5.3

No one reported using the Linux operating system on their workstation, but software does exist to support a digital audio project using Linux. In fact, in 2001 the author launched a successful digital audio reserves project at the University of Illinois using a Linux workstation for encoding.

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... default.^5.4

If you don't know how to find these and disable them yourself, ask someone in your systems office to review these background processes with you to make sure that only essential ones are running.

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... kHz.^5.5

An argument can be made that there is no reason for the sampling rate ever to exceed the 44.1 kHz rate of CD audio because of the 20 kHz limit to human hearing and the Nyquist Theorem's formula for sampling at twice the rate of the highest frequency to be reproduced. Sampling above 44.1 kHz certainly produces higher-quality audio, but the enhanced quality cannot be perceived by the human ear.

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... amplifier.^5.6

For more information on audio components, see Jim Farrington, Audio and Video Equipment Basics for Libraries, Music Library Association Basic Manual Series, no. 5 (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2006).

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... gains.^5.7

According to a February 2006 survey of more than 76 million websites at http://news.netcraft.com/archives/web_server_survey.html, the Apache web server (a Unix application) was used by 67 percent of the sites, while Microsoft's server was used by 21 percent.

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... downloaded.^5.8

As we mentioned above, though (see ``Streaming,'' p. ), using download technology to deliver copy-protected audio exposes you to the risk of legal action. Be sure to check with your institution's legal department before setting up a listening service that allows users to download and save copies of copy-protected audio.

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... MLA-L,^7.1

mla-l@listserv.indiana.edu; archives available at http://listserv.indiana.edu.

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... web.^7.2

Radio stations are an excellent source for testing the compatibility of various audio streams. The Public Radio Fan site (http://www.publicradiofan.com), for example, indexes stations according to a number of criteria, including streaming format.

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... Freedb.^7.3

See http://www.gracenote.com and http://www.freedb.org.

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... Reserves''^A.1

Music Library Association, ``Statement on the Digital Transmission of Electronic Reserves,'' c1996-2002, http://www.lib.jmu.edu/org/mla/guidelines/accepted%20guidelines/Di gital%20Reserves.asp (Accessed 19 November 2005).

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